CLASS: SENIOR THREE
COURSE CONTENTS
UNIT I: REVIEW OF KEY ASPECTS OF PROSE
UNIT II: PLOT DEVELOPMENT
UNIT III: TONE, ATMOSPHERE AND PURPOSE
UNIT IV: TYPES OF POETRY AND POEMS
UNIT V: POETIC DEVICES
UNIT VI: CONTEXT AND PLOT DEVELOPMENT
UNIT VII: CHARACTER, SUBJECT MATTER AND THEMES
UNIT VIII: STYLE, MOOD AND ATMOSPHERE.
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UNIT I: REVIEW OF THE KEY ASPECTS OF PROSE
I.1. KEY ASPECTS OF PROSE
Prose writing involves writing in a language similar to everyday speech with no metric structure. Prose refers to the ordinary or the normal form of written or spoken language which has no metrical pattern. It is the style of writing that is employed in novels, novellas and short stories.
Prose is a form of writing that is natural and uses grammatical structure. Most forms of writing and speaking are done in prose. It is the most common form of writing. It is usually straightforward and may utilize figurative language.
Key aspects of prose are the basic elements on which the story is built upon. Those key aspects of prose include plot, setting, characters, subject, theme and message. For more see also key aspects of prose.
A. PLOT
Plot refers to the way events or actions of a story are arranged, especially the way they relate to each other in a cause and effect manner. In short, plot is the cause and effect arrangement of the actions or events in a story.
Plot can also be:
- The order of events in a story.
- The sequence of events in a story.
- The succession of events in a story.
- The arrangement of events in a story.
- The main events of a story devised to be presented by the writer as an interrelated sequence.
The plot is a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and an end.
The parts/elements of a plot
Exposition/introduction: It is the opening/beginning of a story where the characters and setting are revealed. Sometimes the main conflict is also introduced here.
Rising action: This is where the events in the story become complex. The conflict is revealed at this stage (events between introduction and climax).
Climax: It is the highest point of interest, tension and suspense. It is the turning point of the story where the reader questions what will happen next.
Falling action: At this stage the events and conflicts/complications begin to be resolved. Events show the results of how the characters begin to resolve the conflict.
Resolution/ denouement: The part of the plot that concludes the falling action by revealing or suggesting the outcome of the conflict. It is the end of the story.
The types of plot
Linear plot: It is a plot which starts from a certain point and ends at another point. The events in the story flow a chronological/sequential order. At the end of a linear plot, the main character finds a solution to his problems or not.
Circular plot: It is the plot which ends at the same place where it began. It is the unfolding of events that begin and end in the same place. It is when the story starts with the end and then jumps back in time, to the beginning. In a circular plot the solution to a conflict/problem is never reached
B. SETTING
Setting refers to the place and time at which a play, novel, or film is represented as happening. It is the historical period, geographical place and social-cultural context in which the events of a story occur. Setting is also the place and time of a story. It answers the questions of where and when. The time and place can be real or imaginary.
Setting as:
Time: -the actual time in which the events of a story occur, like at 5h00’ A.M, during the night, on Monday, in August, in 2019….
-the historical period in which the events of a story occur, as Before Christ, precolonial period, colonial period, post-colonial period, post-independence era, post genocide period…
Place: – the geographical place where the events of a story take place like inside the house, on the hill, in a garden, in a sea, at Muyumbu, in Rwanda, in Nyungwe Forest, at school, in a prison….
The socio-cultural context in which the events of a story are set like in urban or rural environment or in a traditional society…
The types of setting
The social setting: It refers to the physical environment in which the events of a story happen.
Ex: In a town, a slum, a suburb, upcountry…
The historical setting: It is the specific time in which the events in a story happen.
Ex: Before Christ, pre-colonial era, colonial period, post-colonial era,computer age…
Cultural setting: It includes the patterns of behaviours and beliefs that dominate the society
in which the characters live. It includes the family relations, moral values,gender roles, customs, beliefs…
Political setting: It refers to the prevailing political situation around which a story revolves. A story could condemn bad governance or unequal distribution of national resources.
Context
Context refers to the whole situation, background or environment relevant to a particular event. It also refers to the social, cultural, and historical circumstances and setting at which the author is writing. Therefore, context refers to the background information surrounding a subject.
Social context: It refers to the reflection of how the characters’ actions and attitudes are affected by events occurring around the time and place where they live. It involves the characters’ interactions in all levels of life.
Historical context: This refers to the time period in which a story occurs. Both historical events (like wars) can influence the story. It is an aspect of setting that pertains to when events and when characters live and interact.
Cultural context: It can be described as the sustained conditions, collective expectations and prevailing norms among a group of people or a social network. It includes the values of a society, their beliefs social and moral norms as well as the meanings people give to the human actions and behaviours.
Political context: This deals with the leadership characteristics and dynamics of a society. It includes the types of leadership (like democracy, monarchy, kingdom, chiefdom), the role of people in determining their leadership, freedoms and rights…
C. CHARACTERS
A character refers to the person, animal or an object that the writer of a story or a play uses to advance the plot or theme. He/she is a fictional human being, animal or thing in a story. The character is any person, animal or figure represented in a literary work. Characters are central figures on which the action of the plot happens.
Types of characters
Main/major/central characters: They are characters that play a big role in the story. Most of the actions in the story happen around these characters. They are central figures in the story and the plot and resolution of the conflict revolves around them.
Main characters are the leading characters in the story. They form the core of the story and the theme is based on them. These ones are categorized into two:
Protagonist: A protagonist is a main character who is faced with problem/conflict he must resolve. He is a main character who has good behaviours. He is considered as a hero.
Antagonist: An antagonist is a main character who usually challenges the protagonist or test him/her. He/she is a main character who has bad behaviours. He/she is also considered as a villain.
Main characters are well developed which makes us to know more about them and we can relate to them.
Minor characters: They are characters that do not play a big role in the story. They are characters that support/help or serve to complement the main ones and help move the plot events forward.
Characters can also be categorized as:
Positive characters: They are characters that show positive /good qualities or behaviours. They can be brave, hardworking, caring, humble, peaceful,…
Ex: Protagonist
Negative characters: They are characters that show negative/bad qualities/behaviours. They can be wicked, cruel, brutal, lazy, revengeful,…..
Ex: Antagonist
Other types of characters:
Dynamic character is a character who changes over time. This kind of character goes through some sorts of change. He/she/it grows or changes his/her/its personality, attitudes, behaviours.
Static character is a character who doesn’t change over time. This remains the same throughout a story.
Round/complex character is a character that has a complex personality. He /she is a character that has a mixture of traits that come from both nature and experience. This character is fully developed and described than a flat one. He/she is viewed as a conflicted and a contradictory character. A round character is a major character in a story.
Flat/simple character is a character that shows one or two personality traits in a story. He/she can’t be a main character. That character is neither conflicted nor contradictory. He/she doesn’t change and the story doesn’t reveal much about him.
Stock characters is a type of flat character that appears so often in fiction and is recognized by more readers.
Characterization
Characterization refers to the author’s representation and development of characters in the story.
How to identify characters
In studying a short story, novel,…we need to identify and know the characters very well. In order to identify them we look at:
- The physical description of a character in terms of size, colour, and general appearance.
- What the character says about him/herself and about other issues affecting the society.
- The character’s actions in his/her interactions with other characters in the society.
- What other characters in the story say about him/her.
- The character’s thoughts, desires, dreams and wishes.
How to identify characters and explain their behaviours
In order to describe characters, we use adjectives. A character may be described in many ways such as:
Good, bad, funny, lazy, ugly, rude, hardworking, polite, beautiful, kind, careless, honest, etc.
The author creates different characters and has to show what makes a character behave the way he/she does or why he/she behaves in that way and how his/her behaviours affect others.
D. SUBJECT
A subject is a topic which acts as a foundation for a literary work/story. It is the subject which makes a writer writes something. It is what something is about. Subject is the inspiration that makes you write anything.
E. THEME
A theme can be explained as follow:
- A theme is an opinion expressed on the subject.
- It is what a poet is saying about a certain subject.
- It is the central/ main idea of the story.
- It is the poet’s opinion or perspective about a certain issue in society.
- It is the controlling idea which is continuously developed throughout the story.
- It is the central and unifying concept of a story.
Minor theme: It is an idea that appears in a story briefly or an idea that appears once in a while in a story.
Major theme: It refers to an idea that a writer repeats in his/her work making it the most significant idea in a literary work.
Themes can be about friendship, love, good vs bad, loneliness, grief,…..
F. MESSAGE
A message can be explained as follow:
- A message refers to the lesson the writer wishes to convey to the society through his/her story.
- A message is what an author wants the society to learn from his/her literary work.
- It is the kind of a lesson that the reader learns after reading the story.
- It is the moral in the story.
- It is something the story aims to teach the reader.
- It is the lesson the writer wishes the society to learn from his/her poem.
Messages can be about respecting elders, not fighting, caring for your loved ones,…
TYPES OF THEMES AND MESSAGES
The two types of themes and messages are: – Hidden
– Fully stated
Hidden themes/messages
Hidden themes or messages are the ones which are hidden. They are implied or communicated indirectly or suggested. To get them, the reader has to use his/her intelligence and analysis. They are also called implicit messages/ themes.
Fully stated themes/messages
These are the themes or messages which are stated or communicated directly or clearly. The reader does not have to analyse the poem to find them. They are fully and clearly expressed leaving nothing implied. They are also called explicit messages/themes.
G. AUDIENCE
We modify what we say and how we say it depending on who our audience is. Our content, tone and language changes according to what we know about our audience. In writing, audience is whom you are writing for.
- Audience is the number of people or particular group of people who watch, read or listen to the same thing.
- It is also the group of people who have gathered to watch or listen to something (a play, a concert, somebody speaking…)
- For books, audience refers to people who read that book.
In few words, audience refers to the spectators, listeners and intended readers of a writing, performance or speech.
Target audience
Target audience refers to the person or group of people a piece of writing is intended to reach.
Intended audience
It refers to the group of people for whom a service or product (novel, novella, poem, play) is designed.
I.2. TECHNIQUES FOR COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
Comparison
The term compare is used to discuss both the differences and similarities. When we compare similarities, we show that two people or things are similar.
Contrast
Contrast is used to discuss the differences only. It shows that one person or thing is better or worse than another.
Discussing the similarities and differences allows us to get a deeper understanding of the events, ideas and characters in a story.
Transitional expressions and phrases used to compare and contrast.
In order for your essay on comparison and contrast to flow, you must use the following transitional expressions to indicate movement to another idea that is similar or different.
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There are three types of comparing and contrasting:
Point by point: Point by point comparison and contrast technique involves taking one aspect at a time and discuss it exhaustively before moving to the next aspect.
Block method: It involves discussing all the key aspects of one story exhaustively then move to the next story and do the same.
Similarities to differences: You discuss all the similarities in both stories first and then move on to discuss the differences in the stories.
I.3. FURTHER ASPECTS OF PROSE
PLOT
Plot is the order or sequence of events in a story.
Flashback
An author may decide to use a non-linear plot. At this time the events do not flow a chronological order. Flashback is a literary style that the writer uses to take the reader back in time to the past experience or event.
The difference between a memory and a flashback is that a memory is brief and does not interrupt the normal flow of a story.
CHARACTER
A character refers to any human being, animal or thing portrayed in a story.
Static character
A static character is a character that remains the same throughout the story. He/she doesn’t show changes in the story
Dynamic character
A dynamic character is the one that grows or changes as the story continues. He/she changes according to circumstances. He/she portrays different emotions and traits.
POINT OF VIEW
It refers to the angle an author uses to tell the reader about the happenings in a literary text. It is the method the author uses to narrate the story. Simply, it is who is telling the story.
There are three kinds of point of view:
The first person point of view
The author tells the story from the I, me, we, us perspective. The narrator is one of the characters in the story.
The second person point of view
It is a type of narration that is told from the you, your perspective. It is not a common way of narration but when it is used, the author wants to draw the attention of the reader to the story and make him/her feel he/she is part of the events happening in the story.
The third person point of view
The story is narrated from a he/she, they or it perspective. This point of view is also called omniscient as the narrator is all knowing although he/she is not a character. He/she knows every move made by characters, their motive, thoughts and feelings. He can move with characters from place to place.
THEMES
A theme is a main/central idea that recurs in a work of art or literature.
Major theme
It is the predominant ideas in a story and are recurrent throughout the story.
Minor theme
It is a theme that appears once or briefly.
Well done